It is a copper-zinc alloy whose copper content can vary from 57 to 63% and zinc and other elements are added to obtain specific properties. Over the years, Almag has collected one of the widest ranges of alloys in the industry. Dozens of research projects are still on-going today, making our offer more complete every day.
| LEGA | Cu | Pb | Sn | Fe | Ni | Al | Mn | As | Si | P | Zn | Other | Designation and Ref. Standard | Notes | Tech. datasheet |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 36Pb3 | Cu: Min:
60,00 | Max: 62,00 |
Pb: Min:
2,50 | Max: 3,50 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW603N / CuZn36Pb3 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard alloy in the USA for machining with chip removal. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
 |
| 37P | Cu: Min:
61,00 | Max: 65,00 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,25 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: - |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,35 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: - |
Al: Min:
- | Max: - |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
0,05 | Max: 0,20 |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
C27451 / CuZn37P Ref. Standard: _ |
Notes: Dezincification resistant alloy with low lead content. Compliant to USA market. |
|
| 39Pb3 | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
2,50 | Max: 3,50 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW614N / CuZn39Pb3 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard alloy for machining with chip removal. It is included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| 39Pb3-HS | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
2,50 | Max: 3,50 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW614N / CuZn39Pb3 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard alloy for High Speed machining with chip removal. Recommended for round brass rods.Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| 60/40 Pb | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 61,50 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW509L / CuZn40 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: High copper and reduced lead alloy. Included in 4MS Postive List. |
|
| 607N | Cu: Min:
60,00 | Max: 61,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,80 | Max: 1,60 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW607N / CuZn38Pb1 Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Medium-copper alloy with reduced lead. |
|
| 610 | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 60,50 |
Pb: Min:
0,20 | Max: 0,80 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW610N / CuZn39Pb0,5 Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Leaded Muntz Metal. |
|
| 708R | Cu: Min:
66,00 | Max: 70,00 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,80 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: - |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,40 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,50 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: - |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
0,70 | Max: 1,30 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW708R / CuZn31Si Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Special alloy with high mechanical resistance and wear resistance. High-copper alloy. |
|
| 713R | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,20 | Max: 0,80 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,40 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 1,00 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 1,00 |
Al: Min:
1,30 | Max: 2,30 |
Mn: Min:
1,50 | Max: 3,00 |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
0,30 | Max: 1,30 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW713R / CuZn37Mn3AI2PbSi Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Special alloy with high mechanical resistance and wear resistance. |
|
| C363 | Cu: Min:
61,00 | Max: 63,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,25 | Max: 0,70 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: - |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,15 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: - |
Al: Min:
- | Max: - |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
0,04 | Max: 0,15 |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
C36300 Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Antidezincifying alloy with low lead content and without arsenic. |
|
| C67300 | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 63,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,40 | Max: 3,00 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: - |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,50 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,25 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,25 |
Mn: Min:
2,00 | Max: 3,50 |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
0,50 | Max: 1,50 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
C67300 Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Special anti-friction and wear-resistant alloy. |
|
| CZ-LL | Cu: Min:
61,50 | Max: 63,50 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
0,02 | Max: 0,15 |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW511L / CuZn38As Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Anti-dezincification alloy for the USA markek. Certified NSF372 and included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| CZ-NL | Cu: Min:
61,50 | Max: 63,50 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
0,02 | Max: 0,15 |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW511L / CuZn38As Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard anti-dezincification alloy lead-free. It is included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| CZ129 | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 60,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,80 | Max: 1,60 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: - |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW611N / CuZn39Pb1 Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Lead alloy for hot forging. |
|
| CZ132 | Cu: Min:
61,00 | Max: 63,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,70 | Max: 2,80 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
As: Min:
0,02 | Max: 0,15 |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW602N / CuZn36Pb2As Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard Anti-dezincification alloy. |
|
| CZA25 | Cu: Min:
62,00 | Max: 64,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,20 | Max: 1,60 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
0,50 | Max: 0,70 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
As: Min:
0,02 | Max: 0,15 |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW625N / CuZn35Pb1,5AIAs Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard anti-dezincification alloy. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| CZA26 | Cu: Min:
64,00 | Max: 66,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,20 | Max: 1,70 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
0,80 | Max: 1,00 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
As: Min:
0,02 | Max: 0,15 |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW626N / CuZn33Pb1,5AIAs Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard anti-dezincification alloy. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| EURO | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,60 | Max: 2,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW617N / CuZn40Pb2 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard alloy with high workability. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| EURO-HS | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,60 | Max: 2,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW617N / CuZn40Pb2 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: High workability alloy and reduced lead content. It is included in the 4MS Positive List. |
|
| FAB | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
2,20 | Max: 2,50 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW617N / CuZn40Pb2 Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard alloy for hot stamping with lead > 2,2%. |
|
| GSM | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 60,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,60 | Max: 2,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW612N / CuZn39Pb2 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard high copper content alloy for free machining. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| LFB | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW510L / CuZn42 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Alloy with low lead content. Certified NSF372 for USA market. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| MSPB2 | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,60 | Max: 2,00 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW617N / CuZn40Pb2 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard alloy for hot forging with lead < 2%. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| NB (Navale - Naval) | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 61,00 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Sn: Min:
0,50 | Max: 1,00 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: - |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW719R / CuZn39Sn1 Ref. Standard: _ |
Notes: Special alloy with high mechanical and corrosion resistance. Classic material for naval use. |
|
| NLB | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW510L / CuZn42 DIN 50930-6 Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Lead-free alloy with optimized workability. |
|
| OT60/40 | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 61,50 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW509L / CuZn40 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: High copper content and low lead content alloy, also known as Muntz metal. Compliant to USA market. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| OT/63 | Cu: Min:
62,00 | Max: 64,00 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,1 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,1 |
Designation:
CW508L / CuZn37 Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: High cold deformability alloy. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| OTS D | Cu: Min:
57,00 | Max: 59,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,20 | Max: 0,80 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,50 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,50 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,50 |
Al: Min:
0,30 | Max: 1,30 |
Mn: Min:
0,80 | Max: 1,80 |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
0,20 | Max: 0,80 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW718R / CuZn39Mn1AlPbSi Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Special alloy with high mechanical resistance and wear resistance. |
|
| PS | Cu: Min:
59,00 | Max: 60,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,60 | Max: 2,20 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: 0,03 |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW612N / CuZn39Pb2 Ref. Standard: DIN 50930-6 / DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard high copper content alloy. Included in 4MS Positive List. |
|
| QQB | Cu: Min:
60,00 | Max: 61,00 |
Pb: Min:
1,60 | Max: 2,50 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: - |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
- | Max: - |
P: Min:
- | Max: - |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW608N / CuZn38Pb2 Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Standard high copper content alloy for chip removal. |
|
| SYD | Cu: Min:
64,00 | Max: 67,00 |
Pb: Min:
0,40 | Max: 0,60 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,30 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,20 |
Al: Min:
0,10 | Max: 0,40 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: 0,10 |
As: Min:
0,05 | Max: 0,08 |
Si: Min:
0,10 | Max: 0,30 |
P: Min:
- | Max: 0,02 |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW725R / CuZn33Pb1AISiAs Ref. Standard: DM 174 06/04/2004 |
Notes: Anti-dezincification alloy with low lead release. Included in the 4MS Positive List. |
|
| SIBRASS | Cu: Min:
75,0 | Max: 77,0 |
Pb: Min:
- | Max: 0,1 |
Sn: Min:
- | Max: 0,3 |
Fe: Min:
- | Max: 0,3 |
Ni: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Al: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
Mn: Min:
- | Max: 0,05 |
As: Min:
- | Max: - |
Si: Min:
2,7 | Max: 3,5 |
P: Min:
0,02 | Max: 0,10 |
Zn: Min:
Diff. | Max: - |
Other: Min:
- | Max: 0,2 |
Designation:
CW724R / CuZn21Si3P Ref. Standard: - |
Notes: Antidezincyfing alloy with high mechanical properties. |
|
Among all the possible alloys of copper and zinc, brasses occupy a marginal role in the phase diagram. More precisely, copper alloys of technological interest have copper content ranging from 57% to 70%. The α phase has good cold workability while the β phase has good hot workability.
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Brass is commonly perceived as an alloy for architectural uses, due to its characteristic colour and resemblance to gold. But it has more other properties: recyclability, affordability and environmental sustainability are fundamental factors in various fields of application.
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